The 19th century was the era of unprecedented industrialization, colonial expansion, and the rise of powerful national states, fundamentally reshaping the global economic and political order under British dominance.

• Major Events
  1. Napoleon’s expansion and defeat (ending 1815 CE).
  2. Abolition of slavery throughout most of the British Empire (1833 CE) and the United States (1865 CE).
  3. Unification of Germany and Italy (1871 CE).
  4. Scramble for Africa (Berlin Conference, 1884–1885 CE), partitioning the continent among European powers.
• Major Empires
  1. British Empire (Peak of global power and territory)
  2. French Colonial Empire (Expansion in Africa and Southeast Asia)
  3. Russian Empire
  4. Qing Dynasty (China, enters terminal decline)
• Major Conflicts
  1. Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815 CE)
  2. American Civil War (1861–1865 CE)
  3. Crimean War (1853–1856 CE)
  4. Opium Wars in China (1839–1842, 1856–1860 CE)
• Population Trends
  1. Massive global population increase, especially in industrialized nations.
  2. Urbanization accelerates dramatically, leading to the rise of massive industrial cities.
• Key Leaders
  1. Queen Victoria (United Kingdom)
  2. Otto von Bismarck (Prime Minister of Prussia, unified Germany)
  3. Abraham Lincoln (U.S. President during the Civil War)
• Key Intellectuals
  1. Charles Darwin (Naturalist, developed the theory of evolution) [Image of Charles Darwin]
  2. Karl Marx (Philosopher and economist, wrote Das Kapital)
  3. Marie Curie (Pioneer in radioactivity research, late century)
• Major Religions
  1. Christianity (Missionary expansion tied to colonialism; rise of fundamentalism).
  2. Decline in the political power of Islamic states (e.g., Ottoman Empire).
  3. Rise of new religious movements (e.g., Mormonism, Baháʼí Faith).
• Key Developments
  1. Invention of the internal combustion engine and the telephone.
  2. Widespread adoption of the railroad and steamship technology.
  3. Development of modern scientific fields: germ theory, electricity, thermodynamics.