The 13th century was defined by the massive expansion of the Mongol Empire across Asia and Eastern Europe. In the West, it was a high point for scholastic philosophy and the construction of immense Gothic cathedrals.

• Major Events
  1. Genghis Khan unifies the Mongol tribes (1206 CE) and begins large-scale conquests.
  2. Sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade (1204 CE).
  3. Signing of the Magna Carta in England (1215 CE), limiting the King's power.
  4. The Mongols defeat the Abbasid Caliphate and sack Baghdad (1258 CE).
• Major Empires
  1. Mongol Empire (Largest contiguous land empire in history)
  2. Mamluk Sultanate (Egypt, successfully repelled the Mongols)
  3. Holy Roman Empire
  4. Southern Song Dynasty (China, conquered by Mongols)
• Major Conflicts
  1. Mongol Conquests of Eurasia (throughout the century)
  2. Battle of Ain Jalut (1260 CE): Mamluks defeat the Mongols.
  3. Reconquista in Iberia (major advances against the Moors).
• Population Trends
  1. Massive population loss in areas conquered by the Mongols (Central Asia, Persia, Eastern Europe).
  2. Peak population and agricultural output during the High Middle Ages in Western Europe.
• Key Leaders
  1. Genghis Khan (Founder of the Mongol Empire)
  2. Kublai Khan (Grandson of Genghis, founded the Yuan Dynasty in China)
  3. Louis IX (St. Louis, King of France)
• Key Intellectuals
  1. Thomas Aquinas (Dominican friar, integrated Aristotle with Christian theology)
  2. Roger Bacon (English philosopher and scientist)
  3. Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi (Persian poet and theologian)
• Major Religions
  1. Christianity (Peak power of the Papacy; rise of mendicant orders like Franciscans and Dominicans).
  2. Islam (Devastated by the Mongols but thrives under the Mamluks).
  3. Buddhism (Continues under the Yuan Dynasty in China).
• Key Developments
  1. The founding of the Yuan Dynasty in China by Kublai Khan.
  2. Marco Polo's journey to the East (late century).
  3. The widespread use of spectacles (eyeglasses) in Italy.